Animal by Product in Cat Food Peer Reviewed Article

A good, nutritious diet is essential for the health and well‐beingness of our domestic pets. Today, most pet dogs and cats are fed highly processed food bearing fiddling resemblance to canine and feline bequeathed diets. Additives are included in candy pet food to provide nutritional benefits, ensure food safety, and maintain the desirable features of color, flavor, texture, stability and resistance to spoilage. This paper reviews the safety of various additives in candy pet food. Labelling, condom assessment, and ethical concerns regarding existing toxicity testing procedures are also considered. The adequacy of testing for many additives and the scientific basis for determining condom are questioned. Additives can be synthetic or 'natural' although the distinction tin be blurred when naturally derived substances are synthesised in the laboratory, or extracted using a high level of physical and chemic processing. Although additives play important roles in processed food production, updated strategies and technologies may be required to constitute their safety in the pet food industry.

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Additives in pet nutrient: are they condom?

J. M. C 1

Re-Fur-All Referrals, Newbury, Berkshire, U.k.

1Corresponding author e-mail: marker@markcraig.co.united kingdom

A good, nutritious diet is essential for the health and well-being of our domestic pets. Today, most pet

dogs and cats are fed highly processed food bearing little resemblance to canine and feline bequeathed

diets. Additives are included in processed pet food to provide nutritional beneﬁts, ensure food safety,

and maintain the desirable features of colour, ﬂavour, texture, stability and resistance to spoilage. This

paper reviews the rubber of diverse additives in candy pet food. Labelling, safety assessment, and

upstanding concerns regarding existing toxicity testing procedures are also considered. The adequacy of

testing for many additives and the scientiﬁc ground for determining safety are questioned. Additives can

be synthetic or 'natural' although the distinction tin be blurred when naturally derived substances

are synthesised in the laboratory, or extracted using a high level of physical and chemical processing.

Although additives play important roles in processed nutrient production, updated strategies and technolo-

gies may be required to found their safe in the pet food industry.

INTRODUCTION

A practiced, nutritious diet is essential for the wellness and well-being

of our domestic pets. Today, most pet dogs and cats are fed highly

candy food bearing little resemblance to canine and feline

ancestral diets. Additives are included in candy pet food to

provide nutritional benefits, ensure nutrient safe and maintain the

desirable features of colour, flavour, texture, stability and resis-

tance to spoilage (FEDIAF2018a).

Human consumption of nutrient additives has increased consider-

ably in recent decades (Chassaing et al.2015) and the aforementioned is prob-

ably truthful for our pets. How can we be sure that these additives are

safe? Additives are oft suspected of causing health problems in pet

animals, but there are few studies to substantiate or refute these suspi-

cions (Roudebush & Cowell1992, Roudebush1993, Craig2019).

This newspaper reviews the safety of various additives in pro-

cessed pet nutrient. Labelling, safety assessment and upstanding concerns

regarding existing toxicity testing procedures are also considered.

ADDITIVES ASSOCIATED WITH Prophylactic ISSUES

IN DOGS AND CATS

Antioxidants

Ethoxyquin

Dogs and people are susceptible to the harmful effects of ethoxy-

quin, an inexpensive, synthetic antioxidant used in animal feed and

in pet foods in the The states (Blaszczyk et al.2013). A metabolite of

ethoxyquin has been identified equally existence possibly genotoxic and an

impurity associated with ethoxyquin has been named as a possible

mutagen by the European Food Southafety Authority (EFSA2015).

Allergic reactions and skin, liver, kidney, thyroid and reproduc-

tive problems have been reported in dogs (Dzanis1991). Although

these associations were never confirmed, the Center for Veteri-

nary Medicine (CVM) asked the American pet food industry, in

1997, to lower the maximum level of ethoxyquin in dog food

(FDA 1999, Blaszczyk et al. 2013). No studies on the outcome of

ethoxyquin in cats are reported in the literature (Fig1, Table1).

Ethoxyquin cannot be used in whatever nutrient intended for human

consumption (except, for some reason, in spices such as paprika

and chilli colour and to inhibit brown spot development in pears

and apples), but tin can laissez passer from animate being feed to farmed fish, poul-

try and eggs, thereby providing a possible route of exposure to

both animals and people (Blaszczyk et al. 2013). Ethoxyquin

has been prohibited as a feed condiment for all beast species and

categories in the European Matrimony since June 2020 (Eu Regula-

tion2017, FSA2020).

Sulphites

Sulphites, found commonly in commercial pet foods, are some-

times present naturally and sometimes produced synthetically

(ACS Distant Education2019). They liberate sulphur dioxide

and inactivate enzymes that catalyse oxidation reactions (David-

son & Singh2018). Thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency, a cause

of neurological symptoms, has been documented in dogs and

ESSAY

Journal of Small Animal Practice (2021), 1–12

DOI: 10.1111/jsap.13375

Accepted: 29 April 2021

J. M. Craig

cats on diets containing sulphite preservatives (Steel1997, Malik

& Sibraa2005, Singh et al.2005). This is thought to be due to

conversion of thiamine, by sulphur, to the poorly bioavailable

thiamine disulphide (Combs2008, Kritikos et al.2017).

The Australian Standard for Manufacturing and Karketing

of Pet Food includes a mandatory requirement that any product

(candy or raw) containing sulphur dioxide, sulphite or potas-

sium sulphites must contain sufficient thiamine according to guide-

lines from The Association of American Feed Command Officials

(AAFCO), for the unabridged shelf-life of the product (RSPCA Austra-

lia2018).

Dermatitis, urticaria, flushing, gastrointestinal symptoms and

asthma, triggered by sulphites or sulphite-inducing additives,

have been reported in people (Bush & Taylor 1998, Vally &

Misso2012).

Sweeteners

Xylitol

Xylitol, (E967), a saccharide booze, is used as an artificial sweetener,

antibacterial agent and flavour enhancer in many human foods,

as well as in a diversity of medical and dental care products (Cor-

tinovis & Caloni2016). In dogs, xylitol is a potent stimulator

of insulin release, and a dramatic, potentially fatal reduction in

blood glucose levels and liver failure have both been reported in

dogs (Murphy & Coleman2012) (Tabletwo).

Gelling agents

Guar gum

The add-on of 0.iv% dietary guar gum, a polysaccharide gell-

ing agent, to a standard canned cat food led to a significant

reduction in apparent poly peptide digestibility and a not-pregnant

reduction in apparent fat, organic affair, and energy digest-

ibilities (Harper & Siever-Kelly1997). Faecal quality was also

reduced. In the same study, a significant negative relationship

betwixt age and apparent protein digestibility, was worsened

past the inclusion of guar gum. The authors recommended that

the level of gelling agents in products designed for senior cats

should be minimised in order to maximise food digestibility

(Tabletwo).

In a written report in dogs, feeding diets containing gelling agents,

in particular a guar mucilage/carrageenan combination, resulted in

higher faecal output (considered a negative effect), although

nutritional benefits were reported (Karr-Lilienthal et al.2002).

Cassia mucilage

An impurity in this gelling agent, used widely in pet food, has

been identified as being potentially carcinogenic for dogs and

cats. Since December 2020, only purified cassia glue, restricted to

specified levels, is allowed in animate being feed in the EU (EFSA2017a,

FSA2020).

Additives in pet

nutrient

Rubber issues

reported in dogs

and cats

Safety issues

reported in people

and animals other

than dogs and cats

Antioxidants Emulsiers

CMC, P80,

carrageenan

Antioxidants

BHA, BHT, propyl

gallate

Antimicrobial

preservatives

Flavouring

compounds

vanilla, vanillin,

cinnamic aldehy de

balsam of peru

MSG

pyrophosphates,

trehalose

Colourinone thousand agents

tartrazine

caramelised sugars

titanium dioxide

benzoates

potassium sorbate

sodium sorbate

parabens

Sweeteners

xylitol

Gelling agents

guar gugrand

cassia gug

Antimicrobial

preservatives

sodium nitrite

propylene glyc ol

ethoxyquin

sulphites

Adsorbent clays

aluminium silicate

(bentonite)

FIG one. Menstruum nautical chart of prophylactic issues associated with additives in pet food

Table 1. Examples of antioxidant preservatives

Constructed Naturally derived

Ethoxyquin (E324) Vitamin East (tocopherols) (E306-309)

BHA (E320) Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) (E300-E305)

BHT (E321) Citric acrid (E330)

Propyl gallate (E310) Rosemary extract (E392)

Sulphites (E220-228) Carotenoids

Phenolic acids

Flavonoids

Additives in pet food: are they rubber?

Antimicrobial preservatives

Sodium nitrite

Sodium nitrite enhances the pink colouration of animal pro-

teins, improves flavour, inhibits lipid oxidation and prevents the

growth of botulism-forming bacteria (Kobayashi et al.2017). Information technology

is a precursor of nitrosamines, carcinogens in man and animals

(Sebranek & Cassens1972) and has been linked to death in three

cats, and clutter and weakness in 2 dogs (Worth et al.1997). Its

use every bit a preservative is more common in cat nutrient than dog food

(Tableiii).

Propylene glycol (PG) (propane-1,2-diol)

PG, a synthetic preservative and humectant, is found in many

semi-moist dog foods and treats (Aldridge2014a). Since 2010,

it has been classified in the EU as a feed material rather than

a feed additive (European union Regulation 2010, 2013). PG tin cause

haematological abnormalities in cats (Christopher et al .1989,

Hickman et al.1990) and its use in cats in the USA has been

prohibited by the American Food and Drink Administration

(FDA2020a). PG is listed past the FDA as "More often than not Recog-

nised as Safe" (GRAS) (FDA2012, 2018), for use every bit a gen-

eral animate being feed additive in animal species other than the true cat

(FDA2020b).

Adsorbent clays

Aluminium silicate (bentonite)

Aluminium silicate (bentonite) is an adsorbent clay used every bit

a binder, anticaking agent and mould inhibitor in domestic dog food

(Beynen2018). The potential for aluminium toxicity from food

additives is unknown. However, aluminium is eliminated pri-

marily by the kidneys, and dogs with advanced chronic kidney

disease and reduced excretory chapters that are supplemented

with aluminium-based phosphate binders may accumulate alu-

minium in tissues in toxic concentrations (Segev et al .2016).

Aluminium intoxication has been reported in a canis familiaris presenting

with muscle twitching, convulsions, tetraparesis and coma which

resolved post-obit removal of a gastric strange trunk containing

aluminium (van Toor et al.1990) (Table2).

Nutrition has been associated with some types of canine urolithiasis

(Osborne et al. 1981) and avoidance of dietary silica (a type of

silicate) has been recommended to minimise recurrence of silica

uroliths (Minnesota Urolith Centre2020).

Suspected bentonite toxicosis from ingestion of clay cat litter

was reported in a true cat with sluggishness and muscle weakness (Horn-

feldt & Westfall1996).

In farm animals, adsorbents are used widely to reduce myco-

toxin exposure. However, natural and systemic adsorbents can

induce cytotoxicity, bind essential micronutrients and vitamins

in feed leading to reduced feed conversion, immunosuppression

and low productivity in livestock animals (Elliott et al .2019).

They can also interact with veterinary drugs, causing a decline or

Table 2. Examples of processing agents

Processing agents Synthetic Naturally derived

Emulsifiers Polysorbate 80 (P80) (E433)

Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) (E466)

Polyglycerols (e.g. polyglycerol polyricinoleate,

PGPR E476)

Modified starch (E1401-1404)

Soya lecithin (E322)

Carrageenan (E407)

Gums

Stabilisers, thickeners, gelling agents,

binders

Sodium carboxymethylcellulose (sodium CMC)

Sodium alginate (E401)

Potassium alginate (E402)

Pentasodium triphosphate (E451)

Pectin (E440)

Gelatin (E441)

Gums (xanthan E415; cellulose E466; guar E412;

cassia E427; acacia E414)

Carrageenan

Murphy flour

Humectants Propylene glycol (no longer listed as feed additive, EU) Sugar alcohols due east.g. glycerol (glycerin) (E422)

Anti-caking agents Sodium aluminosilicate (E554) Aluminium silicate (bentonite) (E559)

Cellulose (E460-469)

Silicon dioxide (E551)

Bogus sweeteners Glycerol

Sorbitol (E420)

Chelating agents EDTA (E385)

Tabular array 3. Examples of antimicrobial preservatives

Synthetic Naturally derived

Organic acids

Benzoates

Propionates

Calcium propionate (E282)

Sorbates

Potassium sorbate (E202)

Sodium sorbate (E201)

Found, herb and spice extracts

Kale

Sweet pepper

Sage

Rosemary

Turmeric

Animal

Chitosan

Defensin

Lactoperoxidase

Lactoferrin

Avidin

Microbe

Natamycin

Reuterin

Bacteriophages

Lactic acid

Citric acid

Propionic acid

Inorganic

Table salt

Mineral acids

Nitrates and nitrites

Sodium nitrite (E250)

Others

Propylene glycol (no longer listed

every bit feed condiment, Eu)

Parabens

J. M. Craig

an increment in the oral absorption of drugs, leading to a potential

therapy failure and college levels of antibody residues in foods of

animal origin. They may as well contain variable amounts of acces-

sory minerals, heavy metals, dioxins and trace elements, which

tin induce toxicity, alter serum mineral profiles and activities of

certain enzymes.

In people, only 0.iii% of ingested aluminium is reported to

be absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract (Bernado et al .2015).

However, where excretion is inadequate, for example in cases

of impaired renal function, ingested aluminium may become

deposited in the brain, bone, liver, eye, spleen and muscle (Ver-

straeten et al.2008).

ADDITIVES ASSOCIATED WITH SAFETY Bug

IN PEOPLE AND ANIMAL SPECIES OTHER THAN

DOGS AND CATS

Emulsifiers

Emulsifiers (Table2) are widely included in pet food to prevent

separation of ingredients and create the gravy or gel in canned,

sachet and other moist pet foods (PFIAA2012) (Figi).

Carboxymethylcellulose and polysorbate-80

Two synthetic emulsifiers, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and

polysorbate-eighty (P80), used to enhance texture and extend shelf-

life, take been establish to cause obesity and metabolic abnormali-

ties in mice and may increase the chance of inflammatory bowel

affliction and other chronic inflammatory diseases in people (Chas-

saing et al.2015). Repeated consumption has also been plant to

exacerbate tumour development in people (Viennois et al .2016).

CMC is an approved condiment in fauna feedingstuffs in the European union

(EC2020).

Both CMC and P80 accept been shown in mice to induce

a marked reduction in colonic microbial diverseness (Chassa-

ing etal .2015, Reardon2015). A mucosal simulator of the

human being intestinal microbial ecosystem has revealed that these

emulsifiers directly modify the microbiota, increasing its pro-

inflammatory potential (Chassaing et al. 2017). Emulsifiers

are thought to pause downwards protective mucus in the mamma-

lian gut, assuasive abdominal microbes closer access to endo-

thelial cells, triggering intestinal inflammation and changes in

metabolism.

Carrageenan

Carrageenan, an emulsifier commonly used as a gelling agent

in canned dog and cat food (Saha & Bhattacharva2010), has

been reported to induce intestinal ulceration in rabbits, mice,

rats and guinea pigs (Martino et al.2017). Lesions in mice typi-

cal of man inflammatory bowel disease take been described.

Food emulsifiers such as carrageenan may act as conditional

inflammatory agents that magnify existing chronic inflam-

mation of the intestinal tract provoked by pathogens (Wu et

al.2017).

Antioxidants

Butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated

hydroxytoluene

Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytolu-

ene (BHT) are two antioxidants reported to trigger urticaria in

people challenged under double-bullheaded placebo-controlled condi-

tions (Goodman et al.1990). Both BHA and BHT, widely used

in dog and true cat foods, have been shown to demonstrate endo-

crine disrupting activity in rats (Pop et al.2013, NCM 2018)

(Table1).

Ethoxyquin, BHT and BHA are carcinogenic in rats (Fuku-

shima et al.1987).

Propyl gallate

Propyl gallate, a synthetic antioxidant oftentimes used with BHA and

BHT, is an endocrine disruptor (Amadasi et al. 2009, Popular et

al.2013) and linked to tumour formation in rodents (NIH1983).

Antimicrobial preservatives

Benzoates

Benzoates are licensed every bit flavourings and preservatives in the Eu

in commercial pet foods (Roudebush et al.2000), benzoates accept

been identified as a crusade of human atopic dermatitis (Van Bever

et al.1989) and linked to urticaria, asthma, rhinitis and anaphy-

laxis (Skypala et al.2015). Cats have a reduced ability to detoxify

benzoates (Bedford & Clark1972, NRC1986) (Table3).

Potassium sorbate

Potassium sorbate is a mould inhibitor, constitute naturally in ber-

ries, but synthesised on a large commercial scale. Although con-

sidered safe for dogs and cats at a maximum content of 5000 mg/

kg semi-moist consummate feed, it is recognised as a skin, center and

respiratory irritant (EFSA 2012a). It tin as well harm human

white blood cells, in vitro (Mamur et al.2010), and, when given

with vitamin C and ferrous salts, crusade mutagenicity and DNA-

damaging activity (Kitano et al.2002).

Sodium sorbate

Sodium sorbate may cause cancer in humans (Mamur et al .2012).

Parabens

Parabens, synthetic esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid, are widely

used equally antimicrobial preservatives in man foods (Liao

etal. 2013). Paraben metabolites may play a role in endocrine

disruption (Boberg et al.2010), although the effects of parabens

on pet health are unknown. In 1 study in New York State, para-

bens were establish in all samples of dog (northward=23) and cat (northward=35) nutrient

and all urine samples from thirty dogs and 30 cats (north=xxx) (Karthi-

kraj et al.2018). Dry out foods contained higher levels than wet food.

Additives in pet food: are they condom?

Flavouring compounds

Flavouring compounds are reported to form the largest group

of food additives with over 1200 commercially available com-

pounds (Davidson & Singh2018). The adventure of increasing con-

sumption of flavouring compounds in humans, dogs and cats is

unknown (Kanny et al.1994) (Table4).

Vanilla, vanillin, cinnamic aldehyde

(cinnamaldehyde) and balsam of Peru

Vanilla, vanillin, cinnamic aldehyde (cinnamaldehyde) and bal-

sam of Republic of peru, all approved in the EU for utilize in animal feed accept

been associated with contact dermatitis in people and reported

to beal atopic dermatitis (Drake & Maibach1976, Kanny

etal.1994, Salam & Fowler2001). A cinnamon and benzoate-

free diet has been shown to provide do good in 54% to 78% of

human orofacial granulomatosis patients with 23% needing no

adjunctive therapy (Campbell et al.2011).

Monosodium glutamate

Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is common in man nutrient and

an approved additive in brute feed in the Eu (EC2020). The

EFSA has established a prophylactic intake level for glutamic acid and

glutamates, and MSG is listed by the FDA equally GRAS. However, in

people, it has been associated, anecdotally, with headache, affluent-

ing, numbness, breast hurting and other symptoms (Zeratsky2018).

A review of human being exposure to MSG concluded that exposure

estimates in some population groups exceeded both the proposed

acceptable daily intake and levels associated with some adverse

effects (EFSA2017b).

Pyrophosphates

Pyrophosphates (phosphate salts) are added to cat food to pre-

vent struvite stones and promote oral health (de Oliveira et

al.2016). However, they also increase palatability, probably via

interaction with amino acid receptors, thereby intensifying the

taste of a specific amino acid (Make & Bryant2012). The poten-

tial for creating addiction in cats in unknown, merely tetrasodium

pyrophosphate is reported to exist moderately toxic in people, and

creature information advise that it is considerably, and unaccountably,

more toxic than implied by its toxicity rating (National Center

for Biotechnology Information2020). Backlog phosphorus may

cause sustained kidney damage and decreased renal function in

some cats (Summers et al.2020) and limiting dietary phosphorus

in cats with chronic kidney disease (CKD) appears to assistance delay

CKD progression (Geddes et al.2016, Liera2020).

Trehalose

Trehalose, a disaccharide used widely as a low calorie sugar addi-

tive and flavour enhancer in human food, animal feed (Hayas-

hibara2018) and in certain probiotic strains added to pet foods

(CIPO 2012), has been associated with the emergence and

hypervirulence of two lines of the human gut pathogen, Clos-

tridium difficile (Collins et al.2018).

Colouring agents

Behavioural problems in children and immunological disorders

accept been associated with bogus colours (Pollock & Due westar-

ner1990, Voidani & 5oidani2015). Some constructed dyes take

been "delisted" by the American FDA out of health concerns

(Aldridge 2014b). An association between colouring agents in

commercial nutrient and erythema multiforme in dogs and cats has

been reported but non substantiated (Mason1993) (Table4).

Tartrazine

Tartrazine, a synthetic azo dye, has been associated with urticaria

and eczema in people following claiming tests (Ros & Michael-

son1976, Fellow & Loblay1985). Information technology is considered safe for dogs

and cats, at recommended levels (EFSA 2016a). Several syn-

thetic dyes, especially azo dyes, are toxic and mutagenic (Bafana

etal.2011) and persist in the environment, posing challenges in

removal and treatment from waste product water.

Caramelised sugars

Caramelised sugars are obtained by the controlled heating of

any sugar, resulting in various shades of dark-brown (Aldridge2017).

Caramel colours occur naturally just are produced commercially

Table 4. Examples of sensory agents in food

Sensory agents Constructed Naturally derived

Flavouring agents Vanilla flavouring

Vanillin

Cinnamic aldehyde

Balsam of Republic of peru

Vanilla extract

Flavour enhancers Monosodium

glutamate (E621)

IMP (E635)

GMP (E626)

Meat by-products

Enzyme digests/

hydrolysate

Pyrophosphates

(E339)

Trehalose (Treha)

Sugars

Salt

Glutamic acid (E620)

Beast proteins

Herbs and spices

Colouring agents

Azo-dyes Tartrazine (xanthous 5)

(E102)

Ponceau 4R (E124)

Sunset yellowish (E110)

Non-azo dyes Patent blue V (E131)

Natural food pigments Caramel (E150

a,b,c,d)

Insect

Carmine/cochineal

(E120)

Institute

Butterfly pea

Turmeric (E100)

Beetroot (E162)

Paprika (E160)

Grape

Mineral

Iron oxide (E172)

Titanium dioxide

(E171)

J. M. Craig

Table 5. Categories of additives in animal feeds in the

European Marriage (FSA2020)

Technological

Sensory

Nutritional

Zootechnical

for pet food and other purposes with the addition of "enhanc-

ers" or reactants (e.g. alkali/acrid, sulphite and ammonia) (Sen-

gar & Sharma2012). Caramel is on the EU register of approved

additives (EC2020), listed every bit GRAS in the USA and considered

adequate for everyday consumption (Sengar & Sharma2012,

Fiveollmuth 2018). Still, contaminants [eastward.grand. 4-methylimid-

azole (4-MEI)], found in caramel colouring agents, take been

shown to be carcinogenic in rodents (Jacobson2012).

Titanium dioxide

Titanium dioxide (TD) is used synthetically, increasingly as

nanoparticles, equally a whitening amanuensis in the human food indus-

effort (Musial et al. 2020) and in many pet foods and treats

(Aldridge2019). Information technology occurs naturally in the earth'southward chaff (Sharma

et al.2019) and frequently alleged a "natural colouring agent"

(Skocaj et al.2011). It has been approved for homo and ani-

mal use in Europe and the USA at levels nether i% (Skocaj

etal.2011). However, French republic has banned TD as a nutrient additive

from January 2020 due to safety concerns (EC2019, Sharma

etal.2019). TD has been shown to cross the intestinal barrier

in rats and play a function in initiating and promoting early stages of

colorectal carcinogenesis (Bettini et al.2017).

TD nanoparticles have been shown to induce oxidative stress

which may lead to prison cell damage, genotoxic furnishings, inflammatory

responses and changes in jail cell signalling (Sharma et al . 2019).

Food-course titanium dioxide is non considered a nanomaterial

under the current European Commission Recommendation

on the definition of nanomaterial but may contain upwards to 3.two%

nanoparticles (EFSA2016b). The European Union is currently

under pressure to have all forms of TD nanoparticles classified as

category 2 carcinogens (Sharma et al.2019).

Labelling

Additives in pet nutrient in the Eu must be authorised (EC2020,

FSA2020) and under existing EU regulations, in that location are four cat-

egories of additives relevant to pet nutrient: technological, sensory,

nutritional and zootechnical (Fig2, Tablefive).

Additives supplied by pet food manufacturers must be declared

on the label (Figs3 and 4). Nevertheless, items considered "processing

aids" or substances migrating to food from equipment or packaging

do not need to be declared. A processing help, as divers by Euro-

pean regulations, is a substance which remains only equally a residue in

the final food and has no technological event in the final product

(European union regulation2003). Enzymes are widely used in food produc-

tion (Singh et al.2016). Enzymes added to food for a technological

purpose at any stage of the manufacturing, processing, preparation,

treatment, packaging, transport or storage of foods, can in certain

situations be considered processing aids (EC2014). Beast-based

foods can exist labelled GM-costless (free of genetically modified ingre-

dients) when genetically modified enzymes accept been used only

remain "undetectable" in the concluding commodity (Pechan et al .2011).

According to the Lawmaking of Good Labelling Practice for Pet

Food, produced by the European Pet Food Manufacture Federation,

at that place is no obligation to declare additives with no legal maximum

limit (FEDIAF2018b). Additives of the functional groups "pre-

servatives," antioxidants', flavourings' and colourants' need not

Additives in pet food

Technological Sensory Nutritional

Processing agents Preservatives

Zootechnical

Flavouring agents;

Flavour enhancers;

Colouring agents

Vitamins and

minerals; Fats and oils

Enzymedue south;

Microorganismsouth

Amino acids; Taurine

Emulsiers;

Stabilisers; Gelling

agents; Humectants;

Anti-caking agents

Articial sweeteners;

Chelating agents

Antioxidants;

Antimicrobials

FIG 2. Menstruum chart of additives in pet food

Additives in pet nutrient: are they safe?

be declared by name simply tin can be declared by just the respective

functional group. This applies fifty-fifty when the level of the additive

exceeds the recommended maximum level.

Safety

Strict protocols must be followed in the EU and other countries

for the say-so of additives in animal feed (FDA 2019,

EC2020, FSA2020). All the same, standard testing procedures for

additives in human food, with a strong reliance on laboratory

rodents, are imprecise and inadequate (Mepham2011). LD50

studies, which reveal how much of a chemical additive kills one-half a

study population of laboratory rodents, are non useful for deter-

mining how much of that additive can exist safely eaten (Neltner

etal. 2013). Feeding studies are considered more useful, merely in

the USA, only 21.six% of the FDA-regulated human being food addi-

tives were institute to accept had the feeding studies necessary to esti-

mate a safe level of exposure. Reproductive and developmental

toxicity data, required by the FDA, were found in the FDA data-

base in just 6.seven% of authorised additives (Neltner et al.2013).

Tests on individual additives take no account of interactions

and synergies with other additives and dietary components

(Mepham 2011). Food synergy refers to the pregnant inter-

FIG 3. Dog food label outlining nutritional and technological additives

FIG iv. True cat food label outlining range of additives

J. G. Craig

actions between constituents in food, which may explain why

eating whole foods may have better health effects than eating iso-

lated constituents (Jacobs et al.2009).

Testing may involve outdated methodology. In 2009, information technology was

estimated that around 30% of safety evaluations for human food

additives were over 30 years old (WHO2010). In its assessment of

human food additives, the EFSA uses dossiers of studies completed

or sponsored by the company applying for the potency of a

particular additive (Safe2020). The dossiers are kept secret and

testing is washed ane condiment at a fourth dimension (EFSA2012b, Safe2020).

In the EU, the EFSA is also responsible for assessing the condom

of pet nutrient additives (FSA2020). Tolerance tests must be con-

ducted over 28 days to provide evidence for prophylactic in dogs and

cats. They aim to provide a limited evaluation of curt-term tox-

icity and in some cases it is acceptable to include "some elements

of the tolerance test in ane of the efficacy trials" (EC2008). For

ethical reasons, the pet nutrient industry just performs condiment

invivo testing on pet animals if there is no adverse upshot on ani-

mal welfare/wellbeing (Personal communication2020).

Effects on the microbiome are not typically investigated, despite

studies indicating that additives tin induce microbiota-mediated

adverse effects on the host (Chassaing et al.2015, Zinöcker &

Lindseth2018). In both dogs and humans, disruption of the gas-

trointestinal microbiota (dysbiosis) may exist associated with clini-

cal disorders, non merely in the gastrointestinal tract but likewise in the

brain, skin, joints and immune system (Craig2016, Dieterich et al .

2018, Pilla & Suchodolski2019). The effects on the microbi-

ome of trehalose demonstrate how food additives can accept unin-

tended consequences such every bit the emergence and global spread of

an infectious agent (Collins et al.2018).

Some substances included in animal feeds are not classified as

"feed additives." Propylene glycol, classified in the Eu as a feed

fabric, appears non to be prohibited in cats in the EU, despite

a demonstrated association between PG and haematological

abnormalities in the cat (Eu Regulation2013).

Wellness effects in people may exist missed because food addi-

tives are tested in large swathes of the population, masking any

subtle effects in individuals and ethnic groups whose genetics or

gut-microbe composition may render them predisposed (Rear-

don2015). Species- brood- sexual activity- and historic period-specific effects in cats and

dogs might too hands be missed. Health concerns were raised for

approximately 200 human being food additives in 2008 (Millstone &

Lang2008) and the number in 2020 may exist considerably higher.

Agin reactions to food additives may be underdiagnosed,

partly because of a low level of suspicion (Wilson & Bahna2005).

Although these concerns have been raised in connectedness with

man food additives, they are equally applicative to pet nutrient.

ETHICS

Ethical concerns, in item over toxicity testing on products

perceived to exist trivial, have been raised (Nuffield Quango on Bio-

ethics2005, Mepham2011). Colouring agents, of no nutritional

benefit to a pet animal and providing simply cosmetic change for

the benefit of the pet owner, ardue east subjected to testing, when brute

testing of cosmetics per se is illegal in the EU (Mepham2011).

Dogs and cats have a limited ability to perceive colour (Neitz et

al.1989, Clark & Clark2016, Siniscalchi et al.2017) and food

color is probably irrelevant.

THE WAY Alee

And then what can be done to accost these concerns without compro-

mising animal welfare? Replacing constructed additives with more

natural ingredients (Aldridge2014b) (Tables 2, iv-6) (Figsv-8)

FIG five. Acacia fibre (mucilage) (E414) – used equally a natural thickener in some

pet foods

Table 6. Glossary of abbreviations

Abridgement Full term

iv-MEI 4-Methylimidazole

AAFCO Association of American Feed Control Officials

ACS Australian Correspondence Schools (quondam term)

BHA Butylated hydroxyanisole

BHT Butylated hydroxytoluene

CIPO Canadian Intellectual Property Function

CKD Chronic kidney illness

CMC Carboxymethylcellulose

CVM Eye for Veterinary Medicine

EC European Commission

EFSA European Food Safe Authorisation

European union European union

FDA Food and Potable Association

FEDIAF European Pet Food Industry Federation

FSA Food Standards Agency

GM-free Gratis of genetically modified material

GRAS More often than not Recognised equally Prophylactic

MSG Monosodium glutamate

NCM Nordic Council of Ministers

NIH National Institutes of Health

NRC National Research Quango

P80 Polysorbate-80

PFIAA Pet Nutrient Industry Association of Australia

PG Propylene glycol

RSPCA Royal Lodge for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

Safety Prophylactic Nutrient Advocacy Europe

TD Titanium dioxide

WHO Globe Health Organisation

Additives in pet nutrient: are they safe?

may be helpful but sometimes the distinction between nat-

ural and synthetic can exist blurred when "naturally derived"

substances are synthesised in the laboratory (Mepham2011)

orextracted using a loftier level of physical and chemical pro-

cessing.

Contained studies, free of influence from the manufactur-

ing company, should be required to assess safety and efficacy of

nutrient additives and additives should be tested both alone and in

combination. Results should be freely bachelor for farther inde-

pendent scrutiny.

Prison cell and tissue cultures, molecular and clinical research, com-

puter modelling, utilise of microbes and improved literature search-

ing may help plug data gaps too as minimise the need for

animal testing (Mepham2011).

Although additives play important roles in processed nutrient

production, updated strategies and technologies may exist required

to establish their safety in the pet food industry.

CONCLUSIONS

The number of additives in pet food is vast. Although official

agencies give assurances regarding safety, data to substantiate

these assurances are lacking and there is much evidence to suggest

that testing procedures are inadequate, imprecise and unethical.

Replacement of synthetic additives with more natural substances

along with adoption of reliable, novel rubber assessment methods

should be considered.

Disharmonize of interest

None of the authors of this article has a financial or personal

relationship with other people or organisations that could inap-

propriately influence or bias the content of the newspaper.

FIG 6. Rosemary: a natural source of antimicrobial and antioxidant

preservatives

FIG 7. Grapes, kale and sweet pepper: sources of natural antimicrobial

preservatives

FIG 8. Beetroot and turmeric: sources of plant-derived colouring agents

J. M. Craig

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Mark Craig

This month's Small Animal Review explores issues relating to additives in pet food, how diet can exist used therapeutically in canine epilepsy, and the evidence for herbal treatments in dogs with skin problems.

Joanna Musial
Rafal Krakowiak
Dariusz T. Mlynarczyk
Beata J. Stanisz

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a fabric of various applications normally used as a nutrient additive or cosmetic ingredient. Its prevalence in products of everyday use, especially in nanosize, raises concerns well-nigh rubber. Electric current findings on the rubber of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) used equally a food additive or a sunscreen compound are reviewed and systematized in this publication. Although some studies state that TiO2 NPs are non harmful to humans through ingestion or via dermal exposure, at that place is a considerable number of information that demonstrated their toxic effects in animal models. The terminal agreement on the safety of this nanomaterial has not still been reached among researchers. In that location is besides a lack of official, standardized guidelines for thorough characterization of TiO2 NPs in food and cosmetic products, provided by international regime. Recent advances in the application of 'green-synthesized' TiO2 NPs, also as comparative studies of the backdrop of 'biogenic' and 'traditional' nanoparticles, are presented. To conclude, perspectives and directions for further studies on the toxicity of TiO2 NPs are proposed.

The gut microbiome contributes to host metabolism, protects against pathogens, educates the immune system, and, through these basic functions, affects directly or indirectly most physiologic functions of its host. Molecular techniques have allowed us to aggrandize our cognition by unveiling a wide range of unculturable bacteria that were previously unknown. Nearly bacterial sequences identified in the canine gastrointestinal (GI) tract fall into five phyla: Firmicutes, Fusobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria. While there are variations in the microbiome limerick forth the GI tract, virtually clinical studies concentrate on fecal microbiota. Age, diet, and many other environmental factors may play a significant function in the maintenance of a healthy microbiome, notwithstanding, the alterations they crusade pale in comparing with the alterations found in diseased animals. GI dysfunctions are the most obvious clan with gut dysbiosis. In dogs, abdominal inflammation, whether chronic or acute, is associated with meaning differences in the composition of the intestinal microbiota. Gut dysbiosis happens when such alterations result in functional changes in the microbial transcriptome, proteome, or metabolome. Commonly affected metabolites include curt-concatenation fatty acids, and amino acids, including tryptophan and its catabolites. A recently adult PCR-based algorithm termed "Dysbiosis Alphabetize" is a tool that allows veterinarians to quantify gut dysbiosis and tin exist used to monitor disease progression and response to handling. Alterations or imbalances in the microbiota affect allowed function, and strategies to manipulate the gut microbiome may be useful for GI related diseases. Antibody usage induces a rapid and meaning drop in taxonomic richness, multifariousness, and evenness. For that reason, a renewed interest has been put on probiotics, prebiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT). Although probiotics are typically unable to colonize the gut, the metabolites they produce during their transit through the GI tract can ameliorate clinical signs and modify microbiome composition. Some other interesting evolution is FMT, which may exist a promising tool to aid recovery from dysbiosis, but further studies are needed to evaluate its potential and limitations.

Stacie C. Summers
Jonathan Stockman
Jennifer A. Larsen
Anais Sanchez Rodriguez

Background: High dietary phosphorus (P) and low calcium-to-phosphorus ratio (Ca:P) are associated with kidney damage in cats. At that place are no established guidelines for dietary P maximum for cats. Objectives: To quantify crude poly peptide, P, Ca, and magnesium (Mg) concentrations in cat foods and compare among food formats (dry, canned, raw), primary poly peptide ingredients, protein concentrations (low, moderate, high), grain-gratis versus grain-containing foods, foods intended for adult maintenance versus all life stages, and cost. Samples: Fourscore-two commercial nonprescription cat foods. Methods: Descriptive report. Mineral concentrations were measured using inductively coupled argon plasma-optical emission spectroscopy. Crude protein was measured using the Dumas nitrogen combustion method. Mineral and crude protein concentrations were compared among food categories. Results: Twenty-seven foods independent ≥3.6 g P/one thousand kcal metabolizable free energy (ME), of which vii exceeded 4.8 g/1000 kcal ME. Thirteen foods had depression Ca:P ratio (≤1.0). The low-protein diet grouping had no products ≥3.6 m P/1000 kcal ME, which was significantly dissimilar compared to the loftier-protein diet group (52% of products had ≥three.6 g P/m kcal ME; P = .01). No significant differences in P content and Ca:P ratio were found among other diet categories. Canned foods had significantly lower Mg compared to dry (P < .001) and raw (P = .007) foods. Declared minimum P and Ca were significantly lower than analyzed concentrations (P = .0005 and P = .003, respectively). Conclusions and clinical importance: The high number of foods with high P and depression Ca propose that pet nutrient regulatory reform should be considered.

The contamination of feed with mycotoxins is a standing feed quality and safety issue, leading to significant losses in livestock production and potential human health risks. Consequently, various methods have been developed to reduce the occurrence of mycotoxins in feed; however, feed supplementation with clay minerals or mineral adsorbents is the well-nigh prominent approach widely practiced past farmers and the feed manufacture. Due to a negatively charged and high surface area, pore book, swelling ability, and high cation commutation capacity, mineral adsorbents including bentonite, zeolite, montmorillonite, and hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate can bind or adsorb mycotoxins to their interlayer spaces, external surface, and edges. Several studies have shown these substances to exist partly or fully effective in counteracting toxic effects of mycotoxins in farm animals fed contaminated diets and thus are extensively used in livestock production to reduce the chance of mycotoxin exposure. Even so, a considerable number of studies have indicated that these agents may besides cause undesirable furnishings in farm animals. The current work aims to review published reports regarding agin effects that may arise in farm animals (with a focus on hog and poultry) and potential interaction with veterinary substances and nutrients in feeds, when mineral adsorbents are utilized as a technological feed condiment. Furthermore, results of in vitro toxicity studies of both natural and modified mineral adsorbents on dissimilar jail cell lines are reported. Supplementation of mycotoxin-contaminated feed with mineral adsorbents must be carefully considered by farmers and feed industry.

Titanium is one of the most abundant elements in the world's crust and while there are many examples of its bioactive properties and utilize by living organisms, there are few studies that have probed its biochemical reactivity in physiological environments. In the cosmetic manufacture, TiO2 nanoparticles are widely used. They are oftentimes incorporated in sunscreens as inorganic physical lord's day blockers, taking advantage of their semiconducting holding, which facilitates absorbing ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Sunscreens are formulated to protect human skin from the redox action of the TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) and are mass-marketed as safe for people and the environment. Past closely examining the biological employ of TiO2 and the influence of biomolecules on its stability and solubility, nosotros reassess the reactivity of the material in the presence and absenteeism of UV energy. We also consider the alarming impact that TiO2 NP seepage into bodies of water can crusade to the environment and aquatic life, and the event that information technology tin can have on human skin and wellness, in general, peculiarly if it penetrates into the human body and the bloodstream.

Gut microbiota are permanent residents of humans with the highest concentrations being constitute in human being colon. Humans get the starting time contact with bacteria at delivery, and microbiota are subject field of permanent change during the life. The individual microbiota blueprint is highly variable and varying environmental conditions, e.g., diets, antigen exposure, infections, or medication, besides as genetics, historic period, or hygiene factors, strongly influence the bacterial community. A fine interaction betwixt the host and microbiota determines the issue of health or disease. The gut immune system is constantly challenged to distinguish between commensal not-invasive bacteria and potential pathogens. Goblet cells produce mucins that prevent most gut bacteria from penetrating through intestinal epithelial barrier, and Paneth cells are the primary supplier of anti-microbial defensins. Gut epithelial and allowed cells recognize leaner via surface markers and they initiate an adequate immune reply. A dysbiosis is noticed in several diseases, just the crucial role in pathogenesis has to exist proven. Prebiotics or probiotics are discussed every bit valuable tools to preserve or restore a salubrious gut community.

Anton Beynen

Clays in dog foods Canis familiaris nutrient labels may list ingredients with complicated names, among them clinoptilolite, montmorillonite and bentonite. All three constituents are finely-grained, microporous clay minerals that become plastic when wet. They comprise multi-element complexes with bones structures like to hardened cement paste. The complexes are found in the earth's crust and can exist mined, merely analog compounds may exist laboratory synthesized. Foods with added clay minerals are purported to heighten gut wellness, neutralize abdominal toxins, aid prevent diarrhea, ameliorate fecal aroma and support articulation mobility. On the other hand, the additives are likewise declared, simply not highlighted. Their role then is binder for better kibble durability, anticaking amanuensis against kibble lumping or mold-toxin controller. The carrion characteristics of healthy dogs reverberate the intestine'southward response to the diet provided. Research data indicate that supplementing the diet with clinoptilolite lowered the daily output of feces by almost 6%, while the fecal water content was decreased also. The stools appeared somewhat drier and had less offensive smell. Similar effects were seen in a pocket-sized-scale study with montmorillonite. For the time beingness, the claims other than gut wellness cannot be elucidated with archived observations available in the public domain. Consumption of clinoptilolite by dogs measurably affected carrion amount and characteristics. In view of the small-scale size of the furnishings, poop changes will not be perceivable in many individual dogs. Type and corporeality of clay minerals make up one's mind their effects, if any. Additives begetting the aforementioned proper name frequently have different compositions. In the event of ambivalence almost employ purpose, origin, content and efficacy of clay minerals in domestic dog nutrient, owners should contact the manufacturer. Tecto-and phyllosilicates Tectosilicates constitute three-dimensional frameworks of SiO 4 tetrahedrons. In tectosilicates of the zeolite group, such as clinoptilolite (CNT), silicon ions are partially replaced past trivalent aluminum, the resulting negative charge beingness neutralized past various cations. The repeating unit's formula of CNT is represented as (Na,K,Ca) 2-3 Al three (Al,Si) 2 Si 13 O 36 .12H 2 O. Phyllosilicates consist of extended sheets of silicate tetrahedrons. 1 of these compounds, montmorillonite (MMN), forms tetra-and octahedral sheets. Bentonites (BNT) and illites contain MMN to different degrees. Within the EU, specified preparations of CNT and MMN are authorized for utilize in domestic dog nutrient every bit technological additives in the form of binder and anticaking agent. Maximum inclusion levels in nutrient with 12% moisture are 1% for CNT (1) and 2% for BNT and MMN-illite (2, iii). Digestive characteristics Eleven publications are about CNT consumption and indicators of canine digestion (four-fourteen, Notation). CNT lowered overall fecal wet weight past five.8% and fecal moisture fraction by 3.iii% units. Net efficiency of dietary dry affair (DDM) digestion barbarous by 0.7% units and fecal excretion of dry affair rose by ii.4%.

The dietary pattern that characterizes the Western diet is strongly associated with obesity and related metabolic diseases, but biological mechanisms supporting these associations remain largely unknown. Nosotros debate that the Western diet promotes inflammation that arises from both structural and behavioral changes in the resident microbiome. The environment created in the gut by ultra-processed foods, a hallmark of the Western nutrition, is an evolutionarily unique option footing for microbes that tin can promote diverse forms of inflammatory disease. Recognizing the importance of the microbiome in the development of diet-related disease has implications for time to come inquiry, public dietary advice likewise equally food production practices. Research into food patterns suggests that whole foods are a common denominator of diets associated with a low level of diet-related disease. Hence, past studying how ultra-processing changes the properties of whole foods and how these foods bear on the gut microbiome, more useful dietary guidelines tin can be fabricated. Innovations in food product should be focusing on enabling health in the super-organism of man and microbe, and stronger regulation of potentially hazardous components of nutrient products is warranted.

Marker Craig

Food intolerance refers to any abnormal physiological response to a food or food condiment, believed not to be immunological in nature. Mechanisms include food toxicity, pharmacological reactions, metabolic reactions, dysmotility, dysbiosis, physical effects and non‐specific dietary sensitivity. Food intolerance reactions are variable, typically dose‐dependent, and can occur at any age. Signs may arise at any fourth dimension, sometimes several hours or days after consumption of the offending food item, and can last for hours or days. Dietary indiscretion and non‐immunological food intolerance are probably more common in dogs than true dietary hypersensitivity. Hopefully, with a greater cognition of the different pathophysiological mechanisms involved, we will become better at recognising, preventing and managing adverse food reactions.

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Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352299571_Additives_in_pet_food_are_they_safe

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